Diamond Warriors in Colonial Namibia , livre ebook

Job Shipululo Amupanda
Basel Namibia Studies Series
Diamond Warriors in Colonial Namibia
Diamond Warriors in Colonial Namibia enters into unchartered scholarly terri- Job Shipululo Amupanda
tory of illegal diamond smuggling at the largest diamond mining company in
colonial Namibia—De Beers’ Consolidated Diamond Mines of South West Africa
(CDM). It details the underground activities of the natives (migrant workers)
employed by the CDM and how these illicit activities accounted for rapid
development in Owamboland. Beyond this account, the book takes on the deterministic
Diamond Warriors in Colonial Namibia‘natural resource curse’ theory that equates natural resource endowments to a
curse resulting in underdevelopment and sometimes confict. It is argued and
proven herein, from a decolonial standpoint, that such an approach is an over- Diamond Smuggling, Migrant Workers and
simplifcation of the political economy of natural resources in Africa in general
and Namibia in particular. The text also provides a contextual account of the Development in Owamboland
contract labour system and details the symbiotic relationship between CDM and
the colonial state before highlighting the remaining unanswered questions and
areas of further research.
Basler Afrika Bibliographien 2022
Job Shipululo Amupanda is a Senior Lecturer, teaching politics, in the Department Basel Namibia Studies Series 26
of Public Management and Political Studies at the University of Namibia. He
served as a Deputy Dean of the Faculty of Economic and Management Sciences
(2016–2021) and Mayor of Windhoek from 2020 to 2021.
He holds a PhD in Political Studies from the University of Namibia. His research
interest is in decoloniality, political economy, developmental state and black
consciousness.
ISBN 978-3-906927-45-9 ISSN 2234-9561
BAB
26
Cover_Amupanda_final.indd 1 13.05.22 14:13Diamond Warriors in Colonial Namibia
!Amupanda_Buch.indb 1 13.05.22 14:22!Amupanda_Buch.indb 2 13.05.22 14:22Job Shipululo AmupAndA
Diamond Warriors in Colonial Namibia
Diamond Smuggling, Migrant Workers and
Development in Owamboland
Basel Namibia Studies Series 26
Basler Afrika Bibliographien 2022
!Amupanda_Buch.indb 3 13.05.22 14:22©2022 The author
©2022 Basler Afrika Bibliographien
Basler Afrika Bibliographien
Namibia Resource Centre & Southern Africa Library
Klosterberg 23
P O Box
4010 Basel
Switzerland
www.baslerafrika.ch
Cover image: Hand sorting of diamonds in Oranjemund, ca 1970s. Image with no details provided by
the NAMDEB Resource Centre. See also G. Schneider: Treasures of the Diamond Coast. A Century of
Diamond Mining. Windhoek: Macmillan Education, p. 171.
Efforts were made to trace the copyright holders of photographs used in this publication. We apologise
for any incomlete or incorrect acknowledgements.
All rights reserved.
ISBN 978-3-906927-45-9
ISSN 2234-9561
!Amupanda_Buch.indb 4 13.05.22 14:22Contents
Abstract ix
List of Figuresxii
List of Tablesxii
List of Acronymsxiii
Explanation of terminology as used in this study xiv
Acknowledgements xvi
Dedicationxvii
1 Introduction1
Orientation and background to the study 1
The CLS and the Aawambo connection 3
Man’s inhumanity to man: the degrading, dehumanizing and oppressive nature of
the CLS 8
CDM in a colonial setting 17
CDM and the global capitalist system 31
Statement of the problem 32
Research questions 33
Signifcance of the study 34
Limitations of the study 35
Delimitation of the study 35
Outline of the remaining chapters 36
2 The ‘Natural Resource Curse’ Theory: Commissions, Omissions and Limitations 37
Introduction 37
History and basic tenets of the natural resources curse theory 39
Application and analysis of the natural resources curse: the various approaches 40
!Amupanda_Buch.indb 5 13.05.22 14:22Evolution and the critique of the natural resources curse theory 47
Alternative perspectives on the political economy of illegal diamonds in
Owamboland 50
Conclusion 64
3Research Methodology67
Introduction67
Justifying the units of analysis 68
Research design69
Population of the study 69
Sampling69
Research instruments 70
Data-gathering procedure 70
Methods of data analysis 70
Challenges encountered and remedies 71
Research ethics 73
Conclusion 74
4The Natives and the Diamonds in Colonial Namibia—Methods, Strategiesand Tactics for Smuggling Diamonds at CDM 75
Introduction75
The fact of diamond smuggling at CDM76
Osheelo and the native diamond-smuggling syndicate78
The ‘gift of nature’: domesticated pigeons 81
The ‘back way’: the readily-available rectum 82
The ‘holy shield’: the Lutheran pastors 83
The luggage conveyor belt 84
The ‘blind spots’ 86
The collaborating insiders 88
The collaborating outsiders 88
The ‘abdominal carriage’ 90
The ‘disability path’ 91
!Amupanda_Buch.indb 6 13.05.22 14:22The fast and efcient crossbow 92
Conclusion 93
5The Diamond Supply and Demand Dynamics—Understanding the Portuguese
Connection95
Introduction95
From the ONSS to the Port North masterminds 96
Portuguese business acumen and strategic role in illegal diamonds 98
Afrikaners or Portuguese? The role of trust in underground diamond dealings 101
Portuguese illegal diamonds and the De Beers connection 102
Conclusion 105
6The Diamond Rents in Owamboland—Concomitant Rapid Development by Unorthodox Means107
Introduction107
The ‘Diamond Princes’ 108
Purchasing power, mercantilism and opportunities 114
The transformation of the Owamboland rural economy 117
Cattle as ‘currency’: consolidation of traditional economic development patterns 120
Can a claim of development be made? 121
Conclusion 122
7Findings of the Study124
Introduction124
Findings relating to research questions 124
Conclusion 128
8Conclusion129
Introduction129
Nature of the study and contribution to the body of knowledge 130
Contribution towards the natural resources curse theory and an alternative understanding of the political economy of mineral resources 131
CDM as a capitalist instrument of the colonial project 131
!Amupanda_Buch.indb 7 13.05.22 14:22The natives and their involvement in illegal diamonds 133
The diamond rents and development in Owamboland 133
Developmental lessons from illegal diamonds 134
Unresolved and troubling questions 135
Auxiliary fndings and refections 135
Areas for further research 138
Conclusion 139
References141
Appendices154
Appendix 1: Respondents Interviewed in 2017 for the Study 154
Appendix 2: Ethical Clearance Certifcate 157
Appendix 3: Research Permission Letter 158
Appendix 4: Participant Information Sheet 159
Appendix 5: Informed Consent Form 160
Appendix 6: English-language Questionnaire for former CDM Employees 163
Appendix 7: Oshiwambo Questionnaire for Fyees 168
Appendix 8: Interview Questions for Mining/Diamond and Other Experts 173
Appendix 9: Interview Questions for Community Leaders, Activists and
Other Leaders 176
Appendix 10: Interview Questions for CDM and Colonial State Ofcials 179
Appendix 11: Verifcation Questionnaire for De Beers Ofcials 182
Appendix 12: Vor Oshakati Town Council Ofcials 186
Index 188
!Amupanda_Buch.indb 8 13.05.22 14:22Abstract
Whilst the ‘natural resource curse’ theory has been an enduring theory in the study of the
relationship between natural resources endowment and economic development, the
economics approach to this theory, which privileges the economic explanation focusing on the
Dutch disease and revenue volatility, has been dominant. The political economy approach
has proven to be more useful not only in political science but also in the study of the African
political economy and developing countries such as Namibia where the political conditions
played an infuential role than the Dutch disease and revenue volatility.
At the theoretical level, this study aligns and pursued the political economy approach
to the ‘natural resource curse’ research and provides further explanations from a
decolonial perspective. The decolonial explanations are useful for it is evident that the ‘natural
resource curse’, as is the case with other Eurocentric theories, does not dwell on the agency
and subjectivity of the natives, in this case those involved in the illegal diamond trade.
Because of the political conditions in colonial Namibia, the political economy explanations
such as rent-seeking, agency and moral cosmopolitanism are insufcient in explaining the
relationship between the natives and Consolidated Diamond Mines (CDM) in colonial
Namibia in general and the role of illegal diamonds in the development of Owamboland in
particular. As such, decolonial insights such as alternative epistemology, indigenous resurgence
and alternative conceptualization of development are used to provide understanding of the
political economy of illegal diamonds in Owamboland.
Using a mixed method, the study was exposed to a rich data set ranging from
interviews, archival records, court records and secondary data. This allowed for cross
pollination and verifcation of the data thus improving the validity and reliability of the data and
fndings. The study found, across all four data sets, comprehensive evidence confrming
illegal diamond operations at CDM involving the Aawambo workers and the Portuguese
masterminds. It is found that illegal diamonds contributed in the development of
Owamboland in colonial Namibia. It is also found that prominent business personalities credited for
the development of Owamboland, referred to in the study as the ‘Diamond Princes’, were
involved in the underground diamond economy in Owamboland. Illegal diamonds led to
increased purchasing power, widespread mercantilism and provided several economic
opportunities for the natives in Owamboland including the transformation of Owamboland
rural economy.
ix
!Amupanda_Buch.indb 9 13.05.22 14:22The evidence further suggests that Namibia’s liberation movement and the progenitor
of the present-day ruling party, SWAPO, was a direct and indirect benefciary of the ille