The Cost of Environmental Degradation

DIRECTIONS IN DEVELOPMENT
En vir onmen t
T he Cost of Environmental
Degradation
Case Studies from the Middle East
and North Africa
Lelia Croitoru
Maria Sarraf
EditorsThe Cost of Environmental DegradationThe Cost of Environmental
Degradation
Case Studies from the Middle East
and North Africa
Lelia Croitoru and Maria Sarraf
Editors© 2010 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank
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ISBN: 978-0-8213-8318-6
eISBN: 978-0-8213-8396-4
DOI: 10.1596/978-0-8213-8318-6
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Croitoru, Lelia.
The cost of environmental degradation : case studies from the Middle East and North Africa /
Lelia Croitoru and Maria Sarraf.
p. cm.
ISBN 978-0-8213-8318-6 — ISBN 978-0-8213-8396-4 (electronic)
1. Environmental degradation—Middle East—Case studies. 2. Environmental degradation—
Africa, North—Case studies. 3. Middle East—Environmental conditions—Case studies. 4. Africa,
North—Environmental conditions—Case studies. I. Sarraf, Maria. II. Title.
GE160.M628C76 2010
363.700956—dc22
2010010933
Cover photo: Corbis
Cover design: Naylor Design, Washington, DC Contents
Foreword xi
Acknowledgments xiii
Abbreviations and Symbols xv
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
Lelia Croitoru and Maria Sarraf
Measuring the Cost of Environmental Degradation 2
The Cost of Environmental Degradation in
the Middle East and North Africa 4
Notes 8
References 9
Chapter 2 Water Degradation: The Case of Tunisia 11
Lelia Croitoru, Maria Sarraf, Fadhel Ghariani,
Mohamed Salah Matoussi, and Hamed
Daly-Hassen
Overview of the Water Sector 11
Methodology 13
vvi Contents
Cost of Water Degradation 15
Conclusions 28
Notes 29
References 32
Chapter 3 Air Pollution: The Case of Jordan 37
Lelia Croitoru, Raffaello Cervigni,
and Amer Jabarin
Overview of Air Pollution 37
Methodology 39
Cost of Air Pollution 41
Conclusions 46
Notes 48
References 50
Chapter 4 Deforestation and Forest Degradation:
The Case of the Islamic Republic of Iran 53
Lelia Croitoru
Overview of the Forest Sector 53
Deforestation and Forest Degradation 55
Methodology 58
Costs of Deforestation and Forest Degradation 59
Conclusions 66
Notes 68
References 70
Chapter 5 Land Degradation: The Case of Morocco 75
Maria Sarraf and Abdeljaouad Jorio
Overview of Land Resources 75
Methodology 77
Cost of Cropland Degradation 79
Cost of Rangeland Degradation 81
Conclusions 82
Notes 85
References 86Contents vii
Chapter 6 Oil Spill and Waste due to Conflict:
The Case of Lebanon 89
Maria Sarraf, Lelia Croitoru, Mutasem El Fadel,
Karim El-Jisr, Erkki Ikäheimo, Erich Gundlach,
and Samia Al-Duaij
The Oil Spill 90
Demolition, Military, and Medical Waste 114
Conclusions 133
Notes 135
References 141
Chapter 7 Implications for Policies, Investments,
and Institutions 147
Sherif Arif
Overview 147
The COED’s Impact on Policy Making 149s Impact on Investments 152s Impact on Institutional
Strengthening 154
Notes 156
References 157
Index 161
Figures
1.1 Estimated COED in Selected Middle Eastern
and North African Countries 8
2.1 Fish Production in Most Polluted Areas vs. Rest
of Tunisia 20
2.2 Fish Production per Boat in Most Polluted Areas vs.
Rest of Tunisia 21
2.3 Annual Cost of Water Degradation in Tunisia 28
3.1 Estimated Damages from Air Pollution 46
3.2 Shares of Environmental Degradation Cost in Jordan,
by Category 47
4.1 Annual Costs of Deforestation and Forest Degradation
in the Islamic Republic of Iran, by Category 67viii Contents
4.2 Shares of Environmental Degradation Cost in the
Islamic Republic of Iran, by Category 67
5.1 Classes of Land Degradation Severity 78
5.2 Annual Cost of Cropland and Rangeland Degradation,
by Category 83
5.3 Shares of Environmental Degradation Cost in Morocco, 84
6.1 Oil Impact Areas, July 15 to August 2, 2006 91
6.2 Annual Degradation Cost Caused by the Oil Spill 113
6.3 Map of Cluster Bomb Strikes as of July 23, 2007 129
6.4 Impacts of the July–August 2006 Hostilities on Waste 132
6.5 Estimated COED in Lebanon, by Category, 2006 134
Tables
1.1 Comparative Data on Middle East and
North African Economies 4
2.1 Estimated Impacts of Water Degradation and
Valuation Methods 14
2.2 Cost of Replacing Dam Capacity 19
2.3 Tunisian Groundwater Resources and Their
Exploitation 25
2.4 Water Volume and Change in Groundwater Table,
by Region 26
2.5 Annual Costs to Pump Additional Water for Resources
Subject to Overexploitation in Tunisia 27
2.6 Replacement Cost of Wells, by Region and Nationally 27
3.1 Pollutant Emissions from Transportation and Industry
Sources, 2004 38
3.2 Estimated PM Concentration and Exposed 10
Population in Selected Urban Areas 41
3.3 Dose-Response Coefficients for Morbidity from
PMExposure 4410
3.4 Estimated Loss of DALYs from Health Effects of
Air Pollution 45
4.1 Characteristics of Forests in the Islamic Republic of
Iran, by Region 57
4.2 Methods to Estimate the Value of Forest Benefits 58
5.1 Severity of Cropland Degradation in Morocco 80
5.2 Estimated Cost of Degraded Cropland 81