Etude sur les besoins des sportifs et des entraneurs suisses
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Interviewing athletes and coaches about sport psychology: an exploratory study in Switzerland Mattia Piffaretti* & Roland Seiler** (*AC&T Sport Consulting, Lausanne; **Institute of Sport Sciences, Federal Office of Sports, Magglingen) Key words: psychological needs of athletes, myths about sport psychology, attitudes towards sport psychology, qualities of a good consultant INTRODUCTION According to the sport psychological literature, strong determination, higher self-confidence, better concentration skills and capacity to deal effectively with competitive anxiety are the most frequently mentioned correlates of athletic success (Williams 1986; Orlick & Partington 1987). The value of a mental approach to help athletes reach those qualities is growingly acknowledged. For instance, the studies of Gowan, Botterill and Blimkie (1979) and of Gubelmann (1997) suggest that athletes rate sport psychology (SP) higher than other sport science disciplines, for a better approach of competitive challenges. Nevertheless, SP services still lack acceptance in many sport environments. In fact, several conditions have to be met before it can really have a relevant impact on the life of sportsmen and -women. First of all, needs assessment studies have multiplied with the goal to match the interventions with the customers’ expectations. Thus, Murphy’s (1988) Olympic Festival study suggested the prevalence of competitive anxiety, stress and fatigue among the ...
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Interviewin athletesand coaches about sport pscholo : an exlorator stud inSwitzerland Mattia Piffaretti* & Roland Seiler**(*AC&T Sport Consulting, Lausanne; **Institute of Sport Sciences, Federal Office of Sports, Magglingen) Key words:psychological needs of athletes, myths about sport psychology, attitudes towards sport psychology, qualities of a good consultantINTRODUCTION According to the sport psychological literature, strong determination, higher selfconfidence, better concentration skills and capacity to deal effectively with competitive anxiety are the most frequently mentioned correlates of athletic success (Williams 1986; Orlick & Partington 1987). The value of a mental approach to help athletes reach those qualities is growingly acknowledged. For instance, the studies of Gowan, Botterill and Blimkie (1979) and of Gubelmann (1997) suggest that athletes rate sport psychology (SP) higher than other sport science disciplines, for a better approach of competitive challenges. Nevertheless, SP services still lack acceptance in many sport environments. In fact, several conditions have to be met before it can really have a relevant impact on the life of sportsmen and women. First of all, needs assessment studies have multiplied with the goal to match the interventions with the customers’ expectations. Thus, Murphy’s (1988) Olympic Festival study suggested the prevalence of competitive anxiety, stress and fatigue among the main topics requested by athletes. Gould, Tammen, Murphy and May (1989) reveal that athletes mostly need visualisation, concentration and relaxation skills to better cope with their challenges. Secondly, the consultant has to be aware of the people who mostly inform the athletes about sport psychology and influence their decisions to work with a sport psychologist. Few studies have focused on this aspect. In a pilot qualitative study conducted on Swiss athletes and coaches, Piffaretti (1997) suggests that coaches are central figures in the athlete’s decisionmaking process. He adds that the coach’s power is modulated by the role of the team managers in team sports, whereas it is mediated by the parents' influence in individual sports. Other central figures in the athlete’s communication network are teammates, friends or a famous athlete whose success in the mental approach can be beneficial to the consultant's credibility. Thirdly, sport psychologists need to develop effective communication skills if they want to be accepted into the sport team. Studies focusing on the characteristics of the “good consultant” (Orlick & Partington 1987; Ravizza 1988) identified the following qualities: for athletes, the sport psychologist has be able to build rapport with the individual athletes, be confident and knowledgeable. From the point of view of the coaches, the sport psychologist needs to be willing to cooperate with the coach, showing good sport knowledge and being able to build a relationship with the team. SP can increase its acceptance by deconstructing the myths it still suffers from. According to Gould and Eklund (1991), widespread misrepresentations, such as sport psychology being useful only for the problem athletes or elite athletes, and offering miracle solutions, undermine the consultants' efficience. Lack of time, lack of knowledge of what sport psychology really is and beliefs about the unchangeable nature of psychological traits further hinder the development of sport psychology programs (Weinberg & Gould 1995). Fear of being labeled as someone who “needs a shrink” seem to be another powerful obstacle for sport psychologists, especially among male athletes (Martin,
Wrisberg, Beitel and Lounsbury 1997; Yambor & Connelly 1991). Piffaretti (1997) adds that lack of competitive sport culture can be detrimental to sport psychologists’ professional activity. On the basis of the existing research, the present study has therefore two goals: 1 give a better definition of the attitudes and expectations of athletes and coaches in Switzerland with regard to SP services 2 provide a scientific basis for setting guidelines contributing to the professionalisation of sport psychologists' practice, in a larger “Quality management project” of the Swiss Association of Sport Psychology. METHOD AND PROCEDURE115 athletes and coaches were asked to relate about their visions of SP. Males (n=85) and females (n=30) from the main linguistic regions of Switzerland volunteered to take part in the study. Their age varied from 12 to 57 (mean age = 24.8), divided into three categories of activity (junior athletes, n=56; elite athletes, n=30; coaches, n=29) in both individual (n=81) and team sport (n=32). The instrument used was a 20 minute structured interview, consisting of 18 questions concerning different aspects of the person's attitude towards SP. Sample questions Why would you consult a sport psychologist ? What would you expect to achieve through mental counseling ? What prevents Swiss athletes from using SP services ?How can a sport psychologist gain entry into a sport group ? The interview was held by phone. Participants gave free answers, which were then codified into preexisting items, constructed on the basis of a previous study (Piffaretti, 1997), or as “other response” when the arguments did not match any of the prepared items. Data were gathered through frequency tables, and the signification of differences between subgroups was analysed by Chi square tests. RESULTS In general, 83.5% of the subjects view SP as an important component of the athletic preparation. Athlete’s needs consist primarily in competitive anxiety (27%), lack of selfconfidence (18%), and concentration problems (15%). Over the whole sample, performance enhancement, selfconfidence and control over emotions are the most frequently mentioned objectives. Differences in responses are found between male and female athletes (Chi square 20.314, df. 9, p<.05; see figure 1). Figure 1: Objectives by Athletes' Gender Concentrationfemale 3 skills19athletes male Emotional 28 athletes control10 Performance 24 enhancement29 Self 29 confidence19 0 102%0 30 40
In addition, coaches are mostly attracted by SP's contribution to performance enhancement (37%), while for elite athletes emotional aspects are more important. As for informational sources regarding the access to sport psychology services, responses slightly differ between individual sports and team sports. Analysing the influence on decisionmaking, most frequent responses mention the coach and "myself". However, selfdetermination is more relevant in individual sports, while the role of the managers is revealed in team sports. (Chi square 20.452, df. 9, p<.05; see figure 2). F ig u re2: Influ en ceo nD ecisio n M akin gb yT yp eo fS p o rts 17 29 m yse lf 8 pa ren ts 12 team sports indiv idualsports 21 m a nag ers 4 34 c oa ch 36 0 10 20 30 40 % Female athletes rely on information from friends (21%) and books (15%), while male athletes greatly depend on the coach's information (29%). The sport psychologist is considered as a "good consultant" when he/she shows knowledge of sports and is present at practices. Significant differences are found between female and male athletes (Chi square 24.969, df. 7, p<.01; see figure 3). Figure 3: Ideal approach by gender 10 rapport 16 12 know sports 28 pres enceat women 30 practices9 m en individualis ed 0 approach10 concrete 18 outcom es10 0 1020 30 40 % As for coaches, they value cooperation of the SP consultant with the coach (25%) much more than elite athletes in general (15%). Finally, when asked about the principal obstacles for athletes to contact sport psychologists, overall responses are primarily the lack of knowledge (38%) and the fear of the "shrink" image (15%). Once again, female athletes differ from the males (Chi square 18.027, df. 8, p<.05; see figure 4). Figure 4: Obstacles by Gender 12 fear of novelty 5 14 "shrink" image 17 women lack of sportsmen 22 culture6 33 lack of knowledge46 0 1020 30 40 50 %
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Results suggest that male elite athletes express demands rather in terms of lack concentration or perceived gap between practice and competition, whereas female elite athletes express needs in terms of gaining control over their emotions. Indeed, female athletes seem to be more open to psychological issues in sports than their male counterparts. Those results partly confirm Martin et al. (1997) data, but are not in line with the results of Kellmann & Martin (1999), where no gender differences were found. Our results also suggest that coaches appreciate psychology as a performanceenhancing factor, more than athletes do. In general, we were able to outline the following profiles of the attitudes and expectations of different categories of people that were interviewed. Men elite athleteFemale elite athlete •Expresses demands in terms of anxiety, concentration•Expresses her demands in terms of emotional and lack of performancedistress •Through SP services, aims at enhancing concentration•Aims at gaining control over her emotions skills and performance•Relies mostly onfriends and press for information. •Relies mostly on coach for information•Selfdetermined decision •Decisionmaking is mostly selfdetermined or•Likes a consultant who is present at practices and influenced by the coachhas concrete impact •Likes a consultant who is knowledgeable about sports•Ignorance and lack of sport culture in Switzerland •hinder development of SPIgnorance and "shrinkimage" are the greatest obstacles for sort scholo inSwitzerland Coach Juniorathlete •Views athletes’ difficulties in terms of anxiety, lack of•Demands concerning anxiety and practice motivation and lack of concentrationcompetition gap •Appreciates psychology as a performanceenhancing•Aims at better performance and concentration factor in sportsskills •Likes a consultant who knows sports and is willing to•Relies mostly on coach information and decision cooperate with the coachmaking •Ignorance and lack of time are the greatest obstacles in•Likes a consultant who knows sports and Switzerland establishestrust •Ignorance and “shrink” image as obstacles Team sportsIndividual sports •Aim at performance enhancement and emotional control•better performance, concentration andAim at •Relies on coach for informationmotivation •Decision making is selfdetermined, or influenced by•Relies on press and sports environment for the coachinformation •The Sport Federation or Association are considered•Decisionmaking is influenced by the coach or by their primary financial supporta famous sports figure •Clubs and athletes themselves are considered primary sources of financial Despite the relatively low number of interviews, this study confirms the necessity for sport psychologists to have a better grasp of sports, being active on the field and cooperating with coaches. Finally, it suggests that such services are still hindered by structural and cultural obstacles as contended by Gould and Eklund (1991). These have to be modified through proper information for the sport market. The eventual existence of cultural differences, as hypothesized by Kellmann and Martin (1999), clearly indicates the need for further investigation in Switzerland in order to better seize regional differences and specific needs in team sports.
REFERENCES Gould, D., Tammen, V., Murphy, S. & May, J. (1989). An examination of the U.S. Olympic sport psychology consultants and the services they provide.The Sport Psychologist, 3, 300312. Gowan, G.R., Botterill,C.B., & Blimkie, C.J.R. (1979). Bridging the gap between sport science and sport practice. In P. Klavora & J.V. Daniel (Eds.),Coach, athlete and the sport psychologist(pp. 3 9). Ottawa, Canada: Coaching Association of Canada. Gubelmann, H. (1997).Olympiamission Atlanta 1996 aus der Sicht der Athletinnen und Athleten Eine explorative Befragung der Schweizer Delegation. Papier présenté dans le cadre du Symposium «Sport, Psychologie und Leistung» du Congrès FSP, Bâle, 19.09.1997. Kellmann, M. & Martin, S.B. (1999). German athletes' attitudes toward seeking sport psychology consultation. In V. Hosek, P. Tilinger & L. Bilek (Eds.),Psychology of Sport and Exercise: th Enhancing the Quality of Life. Proceedings of the 10European Congress of Sport Psychology(Part 1, pp. 301303). Prague: Charles University. Martin, S.B., Wrisberg, C.A., Beitel, P.A., & Lounsbury, J. (1997). NCAA Division I athletes' psychological skills and attitudes toward seeking sport psychology consultation : The development of an objective instrument.The Sport Psychologist,11, 201218. Murphy, S.M. (1988). The onsite provision of sport psychology services at the 1987 U.S. Olympic Festival.The Sport Psychologist, 2, 337550. Orlick, T. & Partington, J. (1987). The sport psychology consultant: Analysis of critical components as viewed by Canadian athletes.The Sport Psychologist, 1(1), 417. Piffaretti, M. (1997).Psychologie et sport d’élite: étude sur les besoins et les attentes des milieux sportifs en Suisse latine. Unpublished manuscript, AC&T Sport Consulting, Lausanne. Ravizza, K. (1988). Gaining entry with athletic personnel for seasonlong consulting.The Sport Psychologist,2, 243254. Weinberg, R. & Gould, D. (1995).Foundations of sport and exercise psychology. Champaign IL, Human Kinetics. Williams, J.M. (1986). Integrating and implementing a psychological skills training program. In J.M. Williams (Ed.),Applied Sport Psychology: Personal Growth to Peak Performance. Palo Alto CA, Mayfield, pp.301314. Yambor, J., & Connelly, D. (1991). Issues confronting female sport psychology consultants working with male student athletes.The Sport Psychologist, 5, 304312. Authors' addresses: (1)AC&T Sport Consulting, Av. Harpe 16, 1007 Lausanne,piffaretti.actsport@urbanet.ch(2) ISS OFSPO, 2532 Magglingen,roland.seiler@essm.admin.ch
