Ideas and structures in architectural history ; Idėjos ir struktūros architektūros istorijoje

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Vilnius Gediminas Technical University Almantas Samalavi čius IDEAS AND STRUCTURES IN ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY Summary of Doctoral Dissertation Humanities, Art Criticism (O3H) Sculpture and Architecture (H312) Vilnius “Technika” 2005 IDEAS AND STRUCTURES IN ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY Topicality of the Problem. The history of architecture in Western countries and Lithuania is researched from various points of view. Such significant elements of architecture as light, color, sound, and water so far have been studied as far as their relation to the architecture of certain specific historical periods is concerned. However, Deleted: izedup till now research of this kind was limited to deep, yet narrow, fragmented and specialized views of certain historical periods, or research projects were concerned with certain specific aspects of connections between works of architecture and metaphysical Deleted: atbeliefs.

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Publié par

vilnius_gediminas_technical_university

Publié le

01 janvier 2006

Nombre de lectures

Langue

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Vilnius Gediminas Technical University

Almantas Samalavi

ius

IDEAS AND STRUCTURES IN ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY

Summary of Doctoral Dissertation

Humanities, Art Criticism (O3H)

Sculpture and Architecture (H312)

Vilnius “Technika”

2005

IDEAS AND STRUCTURES IN ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY

Topicality of the Problem.

The history of architecture in Western countries and

Lithuania is researched from various points of view. Such significant elements of

architecture as light, color, sound

and water so far have been studied as far as their

relation to the architecture of certain specific historical period

is concerned. However,

up till now research of this kind was limited to deep, yet narrow, fragment

and

specialized views of certain historical periods

or research projects were concerned with

certain specific aspects of connections between works of architecture and metaphysical

beliefs. Because of th

is,

research of architectural history still lacks a thorough account of

how metaphysical, religious

and philosophical worldviews

ffected the artistic

expression of architecture of different periods. Without

sufficient amount of research of

this kind

it is impossible to reconstruct a thorough

consistent and more or less total

view of the historical development of architecture. On the other hand, it strikes

one

obvious that while

the

history and theory of architecture is being studied in Lithuania, we

witness a lack of research work

the concepts of light, color, sound

and water that

dominated during certain historic periods

. T

heir impact upon the development of

architecture

needs to be

analyzed and evaluated synthetically

in a way that is consistent

with a

generaliz

approach

, and

with

the

help of research methods applied

the history

ideas and principles of analysis employed by culturology. The deficiency and

incon

istency mentioned above

should be a prod

the

study

the relation of

metaphys

ical

, religious

and philoso

cal concepts to architectural practice from the

past

to modern times

. This should be done

applying the perspective

opened by the history of

ideas. The choice of the problem and research perspective should enable

the researcher

add to and readjust the conventional image of architecture’s historical development.

The Object of Research.

The relations of light, color, sound

and water and the artistic

expression of architecture as well as the influence exerted upon the character and

structure of architectural structures by metaphysical, religious

, and

philosophical

concepts is

the topic

being researched.

The Objectives and Tasks.

The monograph attempts to disclose what impact

architectural practice was made by metaphysical, religious

and philos

phical concepts

and understandings of light, color, sound

and water that were formed during different

historical periods from the

past

to modern times; how cosmologies, world outlooks

and

doctrines of aesthetics

affected the expression of these elements and their relation to

architectural structures; what kind of continuity and discontinuity of metaphysical

thinking in Western cultural history are reflected in the development of architecture

;

and

how esoteric doctrines manifested themse

ves in styl

of architecture of different

historical periods. In order to pursue these goals

the

author set for himself the

following

tasks:

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in which

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ation

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urged

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olden

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the

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oldest

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the

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the

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istic

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were set himself by

the author

To research what traditions of mythic, metaphysical

and philosophical thinking

had

the largest influence on the development of architecture.

To find out what metaphysical and cosmologic doctrines had the most essential

impact upon the principles of the structure of architectural works of art and upon the

continuity of aesthetic traditions.

To analyze how the development of technology and

scientific world view changed

the concepts of light, color, sound

and water in post-

aissance

and modern

architecture.

To evaluate the return to traditions of metaphysical thinking

manifested in

the

writing and works of significant modern architects in insisting on reconstructing lost

symbolic meanings and the sacred dimension in architecture.

To synthesize the influence of the concepts of light, color, sound

and water on the

development of architecture,

and to study

the importance of mythic, religious,

metaphysical

and philosophic thinking

the history of architecture.

Methods of Research.

Light, Color, Sound

and Water are not only physical substances

that can be experienced by seeing or hearing, but also theoretical concepts that are

connected to old and deep mythological, metaphysical

and philosophical traditions

including

beliefs and cosmological world views. Thus methods

from

the history of ideas

that so far are rather rarely used in Lithuanian humanities were

mployed

understand

the objects of research as historically changing cultural phenomen

closely related to the

continuity of respective trad

tions of thinking as well as

disruptions of these

continuities inflicted by technological shifts and changes in world views and their

consequential influence on the development of architecture. The research was based on

the fundamental principles of methodology of the history of ideas

shaped

by the

founding-father of this app

oach

Arthur O. Lovejoy (See, A.O. Lovejoy. The Great

Chain of Being. A Study in the History of Idea

, Cambridge, Massachuse

ts, 1936, 1961).

While analyzing cultural phenomen

by applying principles of the history of ideas,

sometimes also interpreted as

the

arche

logy of ideas (M.Foucault), attempts are made to

understand them as a certain cultural cosmos related to religious doctrines and

philosophical thinking of every epoch

. And to

interpret these phenomen

as structures

emb

ody

ing concepts and notions of

the

cosmos and the world of a certain period.

Cultural phenomen

and art

facts in the history of ideas are treated as forms of

imagination and art emerging in a certain sequence in which principles of gradation,

totality,

and

continuity manifest

themselves

at the same time

and

underl

the place of a

human being in the universe

and the consequential,

fundamental importance to the

development of culture. Other, more conventional methods are also used in this work:

those of historical comparative research that help to reveal the similarities and differences

in traditions of thinking and architecture of various (sometimes very remote) cultures, as

well as principles of interdi

sci

plinary research in the field of cultural analysis (applied by

history and theory of art, architecture, philosophy, religious and cultural studies) that

allow

the researcher to

stress and bring to light the complexity and versatility of cultural

phenomen

, their dissemination in a vast field of socio

cultural practices, and at the same

time

entailing the

necessity to adopt and use different configurations o

methods

developed by different disciplines and emerging new fields of study. A number of

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that have a

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– the

architectural structures of ancient and modern historical periods were studied in

their

natur

al settings

in various foreign countries as well as in Lithuanian localities.

The Novelty of the Work.

Up till now the history of architecture in Lithuania has been

studied from more or less traditional academic standpoints – as a history of change of

separate tendencies or style, by emphasizing the characteristic features of architecture of

certain periods,

and

giving much attention to the factual data of the erection and

development of architectural structures. In this work the preference is given to other

vie

points; first and foremost linking the features of architectural styles and structures to

mythic, metaphysical

and philosophical notions that dominated in

the

period that is being

studied. The dependence of architecture on cosmological conceptions, systems of belief

and thinking, as well as on different esoteric movements that shaped and sustained these

notions

including

their application to the field of architecture

is underlined. On the other

hand, it is of utmost importance

to mention

that not only in Lithuanian research related to

architecture but also in Western inquiry into the field

no work of such

scope

has thus

far

treated the

manifold analysis

of the

relation of the concepts of light, color, sound

and

water to artistic expression of architectural structures and

their

mutual interrelatedness

This work is the first attempt to

give an

overview and analyze these elements and

the

manifestation of their notions in architecture in a broad cultural context by applying the

methods of the history of ideas as well as interdis

plinary research.

Structure of the Work.

The text (192 pages) is divided into

introduction and four

chapters, each of them

with

a list of references.

Introduction

The object of research and importance of the discussion of themes for the development of

architectural history

and

scholarship is presented

in the

introduct

section

. It is stressed

that architectural history in Lithuania was mostly interpreted using traditional and

conventional principles of research that, even containing many positive features

did not

able

the researcher

to outline the complexity and diversity of architecture’s artistic

tendencies. The methods of the history of ideas applied in this research allow

for a more

thorough and broad

study

the themes,

and also allow for the analysis of

the relation of

metaphysical, religious

and philosophical concepts to the development of architecture

and its influence on the connections between light, color, sound

and water

regarding

architectural buildings during different historical periods. The importance and merits of

culturological principles of researching architecture is stressed

and the most important

literary sources that made the largest impact upon the analysis of the themes are

discussed; a brief overview of each

of the

chapter

is provided. The reasons why the

scope of research of certain historical periods remained uneve

n is

discussed.

Chapter I. Architecture and Light

The first part starts with an exploration of concepts emphasizing the divinity of light that

flourished in most ancient civilizations (Egyptian, Greek, Roman, etc.). The

understanding of light was linked to divine powers in archaic mythology. The

continuation of this tradition is traced from Pythagoreans to Plato and neo-Platonists, and

through these sources to the medieval philosophy of St.Augustine and Boethius. The

dualism of the concept of light in medieval Christian philosophy and theology – between

visible light and its divine source – is emphasized by examining

the

views of John

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is provided.

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has

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ed to

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more broadly and

thoroughly

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to analyze

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and

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following

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are

Scotus

Eriugena, Hugh of St.Victor, St.Bonaventure, and other thinkers who continued

the tradition that sprang from the writings of Pseudo-Dionysius. The attempt of

Suger, the builder and creator of the iconographical program of St.Denis, to g

orify the

divine light by making it a liv

ing

experience of his building is given as a most vivid

example of the importance of light in medieval architecture. The illumination of gothic

cathedrals and the employment of stained-glass reflects the understan

ding

of ligh

as the

source of divinity. Ideas about the divine character of light persisted after the waning of

the Middle Ages. Most influential thinkers of the Renai

sance, such as Marsilio Ficino,

glorified light and attempted a reestablishment of the Egyptian solar cult. Meanwhile

artists adopted a more materialistic view and contemplated how the eye sees the

surrounding world. It finally resulted in architecture losing its previous qualities of

illumination, since more practical considerations soon determined its usage in various

types of buildings. A new stage started with the advance of the era of experimental

science, when metaphysical beliefs were challenged with scientific concepts of reality.

Howe

r, mystical doctrines of light were developed by

the

religious mystic Jacob

Boehme and

the alchemists Robert Fludd and Johannes Kepler. The application of

light in church architecture e

sentially changed when Renais

ance aesthetics w

ere

supplanted by Baroque architecture that sought movement, dynamics, dramatic contrasts

and optical effects. In Baroque churches

interior illumination was staged by applying

different visual schemes, texture of relief moldings, using

the

cupola as

symbolic and

real source of light,

and

arranging

the

dynamic interplay between light and darkness. The

application of light in

uildings of

the

modern era was guided by technological

innovations and practical reasons

;

however Le Corbusier, F.L.Wright, T.Ando,

and

L.I.Kahn drew ins

iration from ancient traditions, Eastern cultures

or metaphysical

doctrines. Many of the architectural structures designed by them indicate attempts to fill

in the feeling of metaphysical emptiness by r

constructing

the

sacred dimension with the

help of architectural means; in a number of cases bonds between symbolism of light and

architectural expression are restored.

Chapter II. Architecture and Color

The second part of the text starts with an overview of the first records

that

theoretically

comprehend the nature of colors in ancient cultures. The archaic metaphysics of color is

reflected by the inquiry into philosophical sources of ancient cultures;

the

symbolic

meaning of

the

most widespread colors

discussed . The weakness of the treatment of

color in Plato is exposed and contrasted with explanations offered by

Aristotle

and

Plotinus

;

and

the

concept of Vitruvius

who thoroughly treated many aspects of nature

and usage of color in architecture

is discussed. The medieval understanding of color is

analyzed, drawing on examples from Thomas Aquinas and other leading thinkers of the

period. It is shown how the usage of pure colors was sustained almost throughout the

Middle Ages because of officially accepted tenets claiming that mixing elements was

directly linked to the deeds of Satan. The relations between color and light in medieval

architecture reflect

the

religious symbolism of the period. Processes of secularization and

the triumph of scientific inquiry into nature were responsible for

the

decline of

metaphysical and mystical concepts of colors. Research o

the nature of colors by

Isaac

Newton and other scientists played a cru

cial

role in the advance of scientific

understanding of color

;

however, many scientists, in particular Goethe, who was

influenced b

writings of Boehme

contemplated the metaphysical aspects of color

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are

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Aristotole

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Issac

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ssial

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symbolism. The author analyzes concepts of color worked out by modern artists such as

Kandinsky and Leger

insisting that parallels between

the

visual arts enable

one

understand the domination of certain uses of color better. The evolution of color schemes

in urban areas and

their

relation to climate, local materials, building traditions and

practices

is discussed. The color schemes of Medieval, Renais

ance

and Baroque

architectural buildings represent conceptua

ly different attitude

toward decoration and

application of color in

the

architecture that dominate

in these epochs of cultural history.

Chapter III. Architecture and Sound

The third part is

inquiry into

the

relations betwee

n the

musical harmony theory

invented by Pythagoras and his

dis

ciples, and the architecture of various periods of

history. The birth of musical theory in Greece originated with Orphic religion and was

eventually continued by Pythagoreans. They were the first to prove rationally that there

exists a relationship between musical in

ervals and proportions. The later writings of

Plato indicate that he finally adopted

the

Pythagorean approach. Subsequent authors like

Vitruvius passed on the tradition to the Middle Ages. St.Augusti

, Boethius, and Hugh

of St.Victor continued to develop ideas of harmony

and outlined

tradition of thinking

that eventually passed over

the

Renai

sance. Philosophical metaphors of God as an

elegant architect who turned the universe into his palace had a direct influence on

architectural practice: structures were erected according to proportions that were derived

from music and numbers. The architecture of

the

Renai

sance represents a true rebirth of

the Pythagorean spirit: most architects applied principles of music to structuring their

buildings. Palladio, Alberti an

oth

r distinguished architects of the period were not only

preoccupied with studying treatises of the ancient times, but widely applied these

principles in architecture. Theoretical writings claiming an analogy between sound and

cosmos were further developed in the Baroque period by

the

alchem

sts and mystics

Fludd, Kircher, Kepler and other authors.

During the

advance of rationalism

throughout

the

Enlightenment

ideas of this kind lost their relevance while scientific concepts of

nature’s order took over

. Later,

the interest in

the

Pythagorean tradition of applying

musical proportions to the study of architecture was revived in the XIX century due to the

work of the eccentric scholar

Albert von Thimmus. Finally, the author

gives an overview

the development of architectural acoustics, demonstrating the differences between

early medieval churches in which sound and architectural setting was closely related

and

the architecture of later periods that still maintained many of these links until

the

modern

period when the rapid development of technology turned architecture into “mute” and

“deaf” structures. It is demonstrated that

the

decline in the interest in adjusting

architecture to sound and ensuring their interrelations resulted in the loss of important

properties that historical architectural buildings contained.

Chapter IV. Architecture and Water

The chapter opens with a discussion of the understanding of water as a primal substance

and one of the elements informing the structure of Nature

and proceeds

an overview

the

first water technologies. The fact that Romans had a vast knowledge about water

and its technologies can be seen from the writings of Vitruvius. Remaining structures of

the cultures of

the

ancient East indicate that technologies of water usage were already

highly developed in

the

Islamic world. However

the most solid and lasting technologies

for water supply were invented by the Romans

whose culture of water was exceptiona

developed for recreational, hygienic, and other purposes. Peculiarities of Roman baths

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the

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during

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the

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, but

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overviews

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with

and villas show that these structures were designed using technical skills as well as

aesthetic

Water symbolism was extremely imp

rtant in faith and rituals of early

Christianity. Its symbolism found an expression in the arrangement of certain structures

like fonts and baptisteries. Drawing on Medieval sources

the author gives an overview of

the meanings and forms of baptizing and baptisteries in which rituals were performed.

Water symbolism was also p

revalent

in the very process of building. Technologies of

water supply in medieval cities are analyzed

. I

t is noted that sometimes the role of water

in medieval cities is

emphasized. And

new data is available enabling t

understan

ding

that in southern parts of Europe the recreational functions of water was appreciated by

urban dwellers. The aesthetic role of water, however, became much more important

during the Renais

ce, when copying the Roman style, the Italian nobility and clergy

built their suburban residences in picturesque natural surroundings. In these villas, water

became a source of natural beauty, and its possibilities to excite, arouse

and please were

used with extreme skill and knowledge. During the Baroque period, the aesthetics of

water remained no less important than it was during

the

Renais

ance. The advent of

modern times was marked by the push toward lighter and more h

gienic urban spaces.

Thus, books and articles discussing various usages and benefits of water were published

throughout th

XIX century in Europe. Despite this, architects were preoccupied with

ideas of city

surgery

and generally, water was interpreted as a kind of social liquid,

carrying away waste and garbage from the cities. In the next century, rivers were

understood as

rimarily technological devices or machines, as one can judge from

the

writings of such masters of modern architecture as Le Corbusier. Though during recent

decades

attempts have been made to revise the aesthetic role of water in urban

surroundings, it is doubtful that

the

symbolic meanings that water once contained can be

recovered,

with the

except

ion of

some conceptual initiatives

those architects who are

preoccupied with metaphysical issues.

The r

emarkable ach

ments of F.L.Wright,

T.Ando and some other architects, however, indicate that water still can maintain some of

its former associations with metaphysical notions.

Conclusions

Metaphysical and religious-philosophic concepts are reflected in architectural

structures starting from the origins of this art

and are closely related to the nature of

architecture. Testimonies about the influence of cosmological worl

views on

architecture can be found in historical cultures of

the

ancient East and West.

The bond between metaphysical doctrines and architecture are especially visible in

Antiquity. The cosmology of Pythagoreans and analogies of mathematic and music

discovered by the founders of this esoteric tradition were applied to architecture and

had

a profound and long-term influence on the development of architecture

for over

two

mille

. Pythagorean ideas merged into metaphysical doctrines of Christianity

and emerged in new shapes during the Middle Ages and Renai

sance. Post-

enais

ance processes of secularization and dissemination of scientific knowledge

affected the decline of interest of architects and theorists of architecture in

Pythagorean teaching. Only in the XIX century due to the efforts of e

centric

scholars

, were

attempts to apply the universal principles of music to architectural

structures revived.

Formatted

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sense.

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the

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eristent

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;

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underscored,

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though

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made

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during

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several

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ums

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were

Metaphysical notions of light that made an impact on the development of Christian

architecture

reached the climax of their expression during the Middle Ages

owever

various concept

of the divinity of light manifested in

slamic architec

ure

demonstrate that

the origins of these doctrines

are related to an

older heritage of

Eastern cosmology. The metaphysical aspect of light lost its former meanings with

the development of

the

scientific world view and research into optics in

the

post-

Renais

ance period.

Conscious attempts were made during

the R

enais

ance to recover

the

spiritual and

mental heritage of pre-Christian cultures; the interest in religious syncretism,

eoplatonism

sources of Eastern metaphysical thinking,

and

esoteric teachings that

existed in the culture of early Christianity inspired by th

ese

movement

influenced

the principles of structuring architecture during this period.

During

the culture of classical Antiquity

disintegrat

ing

ideas of faith were replaced

by religious cults that in various configurations merged into metaphysical doctrines of

early Christianity. The continuity and succession of certain essential ideas

about the

world’s construction (light, color, sound, water),

and

a transformation of pre-

Christian images into Christian notions can be traced in both Antiquity and

Christianity. In their own way

they had a huge impact on the development of sacred

architecture

and conditioned the expression of certain phenomena/elements (light,

water) in architectural forms.

The

coming

the

scientific world view and

the consequent

technological

breakthroughs

interrupted the continuity of metaphysical conceptions and essentially

transformed the notions of sacredness: light, color,

and

water w

ere

interpreted as

physical phenomena that no

longer bore a

relation to

ernatural dimension

symbolism.

The rationality of

the

Enlightenment moved the tradition of esoteric knowledge to the

margins of culture and raised the importance of

the

scientific world view. Industrial

and technological progress

together with

the

new scienti

ic concept of the world

completed the destruction of metaphysical notions and reduced the substance of water

the technological

level of waste removal.

A r

ising dissatisfaction with the cult of reason, rationality

and progress urged

the

thinkers of the XX century to revi

e the mental heritage of

the

Enlightenment. The

attempts to look back into lost traditions of metaphysical thinking and restore the

vertical dimension of spirituality can be traced in the strata of professional architects.

These attempts are expressed in the work of modern architects like Le Corbusier, F.L.

Wright, T.Ando, R.Meyer, M.Botta,

and in the

buildings and writings of L.I.Kahn.

The works of these and other architects testify

the vitality and continuity of

metaphysical concepts in the architecture of modernism.

Approbation of Results.

On the theme of the work the author has written and published

two book-length monographs as well as five articles in peer-reviewed Lithuanian and

international scholarly periodicals. On the basis of research material

seven articles in

Lithuanian cultural journals were published. The results of research were presented at

three intern

tional conferences.

Peer-reviewed publications on the basis of conducted research:

Books:

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and

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bear bonds

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with

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and

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consequentially

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of technology

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1.Samalavi

ius A. Id

jos ir strukt

ros architekt

ros istorijoje (Ideas and Structures in

Architectural History) (Vilnius: Kult

ros barai, 2004, 192 p.)

2. Samalavi

ius S., Samalavi

ius A., Vilniaus Šv.Petro ir Povilo bažny

ia (Vilnius

SS.Peter and Paul’s Church) (Vilnius: Pili

tyrimo centras, 1998, 216 p.)

Peer-reviewed articles in periodicals:

1.Samalavi

ius A. Miestas: erdv

ir vieta (City: Space and Place) // Urbanistika ir

architekt

ra, Vol.XXIX . Supplement, Vilnius: Technika, 2003, p.32-36.

2.Samalavi

ius A., Architekt

ra ir garsas antikoje (Architecture and Sound in Antiquity)

// Logos, 2004 Vol. 41, Vilnius, p.27-33.

3.Samalavi

ius A. Architekt

ros ir garso s

sajos renesanse (Relations Between

Architecture and Sound During the Rennaisance) // Urbanistika ir architekt

ra, Vol.XVII

No 1, Vilnius: Technika, 2003, p.32-36.

4.Samalavi

ius A. Vilnius SS.Peter and Paul’s Church: The Power of Baroque

Imagination, Res Balticae: Universita di Pisa, No 6 ECIG 2000, p.211-224.

5.Samalavi

ius S., Samalavi

ius A. The Realm of Lithuanian Baroque: SS.Peter and

Paul, Vilnius, Apollo, London, July 1990, p.17-21.