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Italian Managers: Fidelity or Performance?
1Oriana Bandiera, Luigi Guiso, Andrea Prat, Raffaella Sadun
16 September 2008
Abstract: We collect extensive information on the characteristics of samples of Italian
managers and of the firms that employ them to study how the nature of the firm and its
managerial choices are related and how this is reflected into firms performance. Using
novels datasets we analyze the incentive structure that managers face, their career profile,
and their use of time. Our data indicate that a fraction of firms – especially non‐family firms
and multinationals – adopt a performance model, whereby managers are hired through
formal channels (business contacts, head‐hunters, ads), they are assessed regularly and
rewarded, promoted and dismissed on the basis on the assessment results. Other firms –
especially family firms and firms that operate within the boundaries of national markets –
instead adopt a fidelity model of managerial talent development: they hire managers on the
basis of personal or family contacts, they do not assess their performance formally, and they
reward them based on the quality of their relationship with the firm’s owners. The
managerial model adopted by a firm is significantly associated with the quality, behaviour,
and performance of its managers – as well as the performance of the firm itself. Managers
who work for firms that reward performance tend to be more educated and less risk‐averse.
They work longer hours, but they are paid more and they report higher levels of job
satisfaction. Firms that use performance‐based incentives grow faster and have a higher
return on capital. While the fidelity model appears to have worse outcomes, there appears
to be no generational shift towards the performance model.
1 Introduction and Summary of Findings
There is increasing awareness that the success of an economic system depends as much as on the
availability of factors of production such as physical and human capital ‐ traditionally highlighted in
the growth literature – as on less tangible and more difficult to measure assets, including the quality
of its institutions, the underlying culture and last but not list firms managerial and entrepreneurial
talent. While institutions and culture have recently received attention as drivers of long‐term growth
1 This research is funded by Fondazione Rodolfo Debenedetti. We thank Nick Bloom, Tito Boeri, Vittorio Colao,
Daniel Ferreira, Guido Friebel, Luis Garicano, Barbara Petrongolo, Steve Pischke, Fabiano Schivardi , John Van
Reenen and Luigi Zingales for useful discussions. We are grateful to Enrico Pedretti for his help with the
ManagerItalia Survey, to Valentina Adorno and Paola Monti for help with the INPS database, and to a number
of people at Fondazione Debenedetti for their help with the CEO time use survey. Marcello Sartarelli provided
valuable research assistance.
1(see Acemoglu, Robinson and Johnson (2001, 2002), and Tabellini (2008) and Guiso, Sapienza and
Zingales (2008)) much less is known about the role of managerial capabilities. In spite of the fact that
there is a growing consensus that the presence of capable and motivated managers can be an
important ingredient to the success of an economic system (Bloom et al 2008), not much evidence is
available about the role of managerial and entrepreneurial talent. One reason is that if it is hard to
measure human capital even more difficult is to obtain measures of such a complex concept as
managerial and entrepreneurial talent.
The goal of this work is to provide systematic information on managers selection, their effort and
managerial styles than can help understand a) how such a critical factor is chosen and developed; b)
what are the features of capitalism that shapes managers selection; c) how it can contribute to a firm
productivity. For this we draw on data from a country – Italy – which, besides allowing access to a
number relevant but of not‐easy‐to obtain sources of information, has considerable heterogeneity in
the nature of firms, spanning from tightly family‐owned ones to widely held public companies. Thus,
within a setting that shares common institutions, legal frameworks and uniform tax incentives, we
are able to obtain variation in the nature and organization of firms that can be taken as
representative of the various forms of capitalism that prevail worldwide.
But why managerial capabilities are so critical for economic success and deserve so much attention?
One could argue that, after all, a manager is not different from any other type of worker and all that
matters is the overall quality of the human capital that is available to a firm. A simple answer would
be that not all workers contribute equally to a firm productivity, Actually, if one were to infer
marginal contributions to productivity from observed pay (and to a certain extent, in a market
economy we can) we have already the answer: managers pay are a multiple of those of white collar
workers of otherwise similar age and education because they are key assets for a firm as they are
critical for their total