Final Exam Chemistry 238 - Test A

National Aeronautics and Space AdministrationSolar System Exploration
This is the Solar System Exploration Roadmap
for NASA’s Science Mission Directorate
September 15, 2006CONTENTS i
Contents
Executive Summary 1
Scientific Foundation . .... ... ... .... ... .... ... ... .... .. 1
ABalancedProgramofSolarSystemExploration . .... ... ... .... .. 2
Large(FlagshipClass)Missions. . .... ... .... ... ... .... .. 2
Medium(NewFrontiersClass)Missions . ... .... ... ... .... .. 2
Small(DiscoveryClass)Missions . .... ... .... ... ... .... .. 3
TechnologyDevelopment... ... .... ... .... ... ... .... .. 3
ResearchandAnalysisPrograms . .... ... .... ... ... .... .. 3
EducationandPublicOutreach .. .... ... .... ... ... .... .. 4
ProgrammaticConsiderations ... .... ... .... ... ... .... .. 4
Summary .... ... .... ... ... .... ... .... ... ... .... .. 5
1Overview 6
1.1 Background ... .... ... ... .... ... .... ... ... .... .. 6
1.2 StrategicRoadmapProcess—General. . ... .... ... ... .... .. 7
1.3 Strategic Roadmap Process for Solar System Exploration (SRM3) . . . . . 8
1.4 StructureofThisReport... ... .... ... .... ... ... .... .. 10
1.5 Response to the NRC Panel on NASA Science Strategy Roadmaps . . . . . 11
2 Science Objectives 13
2.1 Habitability — A Guiding Theme . .... ... .... ... ... .... .. 13
2.2 InvestigativeFramework ... ... .... ... .... ... ... .... .. 14
2.2.1 Question One: How did the Sun’s family of planets and minor bodies
originate? .... ... ... .... ... .... ... ... .... .. 16
2.2.2 Question Two: How did the Solar System evolve to its current diverse
state? .. .... ... ... .... ... .... ... ... .... .. 18
2.2.3 Question Three: What are the characteristics of the Solar System
thatledtotheoriginoflife? ... ... .... ... ... .... .. 21
2.2.4 Question Four: How did life begin and evolve on Earth and has it
evolvedelsewhereintheSolarSystem?. .... ... ... .... .. 28
2.2.5 Question Five: What are the hazards and resources in the Solar Sys-
tem environment that will affect the extension of human presence in
space? .. .... ... ... .... ... .... ... ... .... .. 34
2.3 TargetObjectivesforInvestigation .... ... .... ... ... .... .. 40
2.3.1 Venus—KeyMemberoftheInnerTriadofWorlds ... .... .. 40
2.3.2 Europa,Titan,Triton... andEnceladus .... ... ... .... .. 44
2.3.3 Comets . .... ... ... .... ... .... ... ... .... .. 50
2.3.4 Coda... .... ... ... .... ... .... ... ... .... .. 52
The information contained within this document is pre-decisional and for discussion purposes onlyii CONTENTS
3 Missions 53
3.1 FormulatingtheMissionSet. ... .... ... .... ... ... .... .. 53
3.1.1 EstablishingPriorities ... ... ... ... .. 53
3.1.2 TheMissionRoadmap ... .... ... .... ... ... .... .. 54
3.2 DiscoveryProgram ... ... ... ... ... ... .. 56
3.3 NewFrontiersProgram ... ... .... ... .... ... ... .... .. 58
3.3.1 NewFrontiersMissionOverview . ... ... ... .. 59
3.3.2 Pluto–KuiperBeltExplorer(NewHorizons) . ... ... .... .. 60
3.3.3 JupiterPolarOrbiter—Juno... ... .... ... ... .. 61
3.3.4 LunarSouthPole–AitkenBasinSampleReturn ... ... .... .. 62
3.3.5 VenusInSituExplorer(VISE) .. ... .... ... ... .. 63
3.3.6 CometSurfaceSampleReturn .. ... ... ... .... .. 63
3.3.7 OtherNewFrontiersCandidateMissions ... ... ... .. 63
3.4 FlagshipMissions.... ... ... .... ... .... ... ... .... .. 64
3.4.1 EuropaExplorer ... ... ... ... ... .. 67
3.4.2 TitanExplorer . ... ... .... ... .... ... ... .... .. 70
3.4.3 VenusMobileExplorer... ... ... ... .. 71
3.4.4 EuropaAstrobiologyLander ... ... .... ... ... .... .. 72
3.4.5 Neptune–TritonExplorerMission. ... ... ... .. 73
3.4.6 CometCryogenicNucleusSampleReturn ... ... ... .... .. 74
3.4.7 VenusSampleReturn ... .... ... .... ... ... .. 74
3.5 StudyNeeds... .... ... ... ... ... ... .... .. 75
4 Technology Development for Solar System Exploration 76
4.1 Overview . ... .... ... ... .... ... .... ... ... .... .. 76
4.2 Challenges. ... ... ... ... ... ... .. 76
4.3 Spacecraft Systems Technologies . .... ... .... ... ... .... .. 78
4.3.1 TransportationTechnologies ... ... ... .. 78
4.3.2 Power .. .... ... ... .... ... .... ... ... .... .. 84
4.3.3 Communications ... ... ... ... ... .. 89
4.3.4 PlanetaryProtection . ... .... ... .... ... ... .... .. 91
4.3.5 AutonomousOperations . . ... ... ... .. 93
4.4 TechnologiesforInSituExploration ... ... .... ... ... .... .. 94
4.4.1 Entry,Descent,andLanding ... ... ... ... .. 95
4.4.2 Planetary Mobility . . . . . .... ... .... ... ... .... .. 97
4.4.3 ExtremeEnvironments... ... ... ... .. 98
4.5 ScienceInstruments . . ... ... .... ... .... ... ... .... .. 106
4.5.1 RemoteSensing. ... ... ... ... ... .. 107
4.5.2 InSituInstrumentation .. .... ... .... ... ... .... .. 109
4.5.3 ComponentDevelopmentandMiniaturization. ... ... .. 111
4.6 Summary . ... .... ... ... .... ... .... ... ... .... .. 112
4.6.1 Spacecraft Systems . . . . . ... ... ... .. 112
4.6.2 InSituExploration.. ... .... ... .... ... ... .... .. 114
The information contained within this document is pre-decisional and for discussion purposes onlyCONTENTS iii
4.6.3 ScienceInstruments . ... .... ... .... ... ... .... .. 114
5 Research and Analysis 115
6 Education and Public Outreach (E/PO) 117
6.1 E/POImplementationApproach . .... ... .... ... ... .... .. 118
6.2 FutureE/POEfforts . . ... ... ... ... ... .. 119
7 Interdependencies 121
7.1 InterdependenciesAmongMissionsandMissionLines ... ... .... .. 121
7.1.1 WithintheFlagshipProgram ... ... .... ... ... .. 121
7.1.2 BetweentheNewFrontiersandFlagshipPrograms . ... .... .. 122
7.1.3 Among the Discovery, New Frontiers, and Flagship Programs . . . . 123
7.1.4 WiththeMarsExplorationProgram .. .... ... ... .... .. 125
7.1.5 WiththeRoboticLunarExplorationProgram ... ... .. 125
7.1.6 WiththeAstrophysicsDivision .. ... .... ... ... .... .. 126
7.2 TechnologyDevelopmentandInfusion .. ... ... ... .. 127
7.2.1 TechnologyDevelopment . .... ... .... ... ... .... .. 127
7.2.2 With the New Millennium Space Flight Validation Program . . . . . 127
8 Roadmap Implementation 129
8.1 FlagshipMissionClassesandCostRanges ... .... ... ... .... .. 129
8.2 TradingFlightRateAcrossMissionClasses . . ... ... .. 130
8.3 ImpactofMissionInterdependenciesonTheseScenarios . . ... .... .. 132
8.4 Five–YearInvestmentPlan . ... .... ... .... ... ... .. 132
8.4.1 FlagshipMissionImplementation . ... ... ... .... .. 133
8.4.2 TechnologyDevelopment . .... ... .... ... ... .. 133
8.5 BudgetWedgefortheFlagshipProgram . ... ... ... .... .. 135
9 Conclusions and Recommendations 137
Acronyms and Abbreviations 141
References 142
The information contained within this document is pre-decisional and for discussion purposes onlyiv LIST OF FIGURES
List of Figures
2.1 Principal linkage between habitability and five major science questions; i.e.,
(1) the Sun’s origin; (2) Solar System’s evolution; (3) life’s origins; (4) life
elsewhere; (5) hazards and resources for humans in space. . . . . 15
2.2 Saturn’smoonsIapetusandPhoebe. . ... .... .. 20
2.3 ParticlescollectedbyStardust. ... ... .... .. 23
2.4 Saturn’smoonEnceladus. . ... ... .... .. 27
2.5 SpotsandpitsonEuropa. . ... ... .... .. 31
2.6 ThreemosaicsofTitan. . . ... ... .... .. 32
2.7 TwoviewsofVenus. ... ... ... .... .. 41
2.8 ThetesseraregionofVenus. ... ... .... .. 42
2.9 Surface images of Venus taken by the Russian Venera 9 & 14 landers. . 44
2.10 Europa’schaoticterrain. . ... ... .... .. 46
2.11 Hilly terrain and erosional channels on Titan. . .... .. 48
2.12 Astereographic,fish-eyeprojectionofTitan. . . .... .. 49
2.13 Global color mosaic of Triton, obtained in 1989 by Voyager 2 during its flyby
oftheNeptunesystem. . . ... ... .... .. 51
2.14 Excess heat radiation from cracks near the south pole of Enceladus. . 52
3.1 Dawn spacecraft with DS–1 heritage ion propulsion and 10kW triple junction
solararray(artist’sconcept). ... ... .... .. 55
3.2 Views of the impactor of the Deep Impact mission colliding with Comet
Tempel 1 — the pictures were taken at 90 seconds before the collision (left);
at impact (center), and at 67 seconds after the collision (right). . .... .. 56
3.3 SequenceofDiscoverymissionsestablishedbytheRoadmapTeam.... .. 59
3.4 Sequence of New Frontiers missions established by the Roadmap Team. (The
in the NH timeline represents the closest approach at Pluto on July 14,
2015).... ... .... ... ... .... ... .... ... ... .... .. 60
3.5 New Horizons spacecraft showing instrument complement. . . . . .... .. 61
3.6 Juno — Jupiter Polar Orbiter spacecraft concept. . . . . . . . . . .... .. 62
3.7 Multi–probestoSaturn(artist’sconcept). ... .... ... ... .... .. 65
3.8 Recommended sequence of Flagship missions established by the Roadmap
Team. ... ... .... ... ... .... ... .... ... ... .... .. 66
3.9 Europa Explorer concept based on the 2005 study (design concept). . . . . 69
3.10 TitanBalloonconcepts(designconcept).. ... .... ... ... .... .. 72
3.11 VenusMobileExplorer(artist’sconcept). ... .... .. 73
3.12 EuropaAstrobiologyLander(artist’sconcept). .... ... ... .... .. 74
4.1 ElectricPropulsionSystemTesting. . ... .... .. 80
4.2 Aerocapture(artis