Gender Equity in Junior and Senior Secondary Education in Sub-Saharan Africa

WORLD BANK WORKING PAPER NO. 1

AFRICA HUMAN DEVELOPMENT S

Gender Equity in Junior and

Senior Secondary Education in

Sub-Saharan Africa

THE WORLD BANK

E

R

I

4

E

0

S

WORLD BANK WORKING PAPER NO. 140

Gender Equity in Junior and
Senior Secondary Education
in Sub-Saharan Africa

Esi Sutherland-Addy

Africa Region Human Development Department

T
W
H
a
E
s

h
W
in
O
g
R
t
L
on
D
,


B
D
A
.C
N
.
K

Copyright©2008
TheInternationalBankforReconstructionandDevelopment/TheWorldBank
1818HStreet,N.W.
Washington,D.C.20433,U.S.A.
Allrightsreserved
ManufacturedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica
FirstPrinting:March2008

printedonrecycledpaper

1234511100908

WorldBankWorkingPapersarepublishedtocommunicatetheresultsoftheBank’sworktothe
developmentcommunitywiththeleastpossibledelay.Themanuscriptofthispapertherefore
hasnotbeenpreparedinaccordancewiththeproceduresappropriatetoformally-editedtexts.
Somesourcescitedinthispapermaybeinformaldocumentsthatarenotreadilyavailable.
Thefindings,interpretations,andconclusionsexpressedhereinarethoseoftheauthor(s)
anddonotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsoftheInternationalBankforReconstructionand
Development/TheWorldBankanditsaffiliatedorganizations,orthoseoftheExecutiveDirectors
ofTheWorldBankorthegovernmentstheyrepresent.
TheWorldBankdoesnotguaranteetheaccuracyofthedataincludedinthiswork.The
boundaries,colors,denominations,andotherinformationshownonanymapinthisworkdo
notimplyanyjudgmentonthepartofTheWorldBankofthelegalstatusofanyterritoryor
theendorsementoracceptanceofsuchboundaries.
Thematerialinthispublicationiscopyrighted.Copyingand/ortransmittingportionsorall
ofthisworkwithoutpermissionmaybeaviolationofapplicablelaw.TheInternationalBank
forReconstructionandDevelopment/TheWorldBankencouragesdisseminationofitswork
andwillnormallygrantpermissionpromptlytoreproduceportionsofthework.
Forpermissiontophotocopyorreprintanypartofthiswork,pleasesendarequestwith
completeinformationtotheCopyrightClearanceCenter,Inc.,222RosewoodDrive,Danvers,
MA01923,USA,Tel:978-750-8400,Fax:978-750-4470,www.copyright.com.
Allotherqueriesonrightsandlicenses,includingsubsidiaryrights,shouldbeaddressedto
theOfficeofthePublisher,TheWorldBank,1818HStreetNW,Washington,DC20433,USA,
Fax:202-522-2422,email:pubrights@worldbank.org.

ISBN-13:978-0-8213-7505-1
eISBN:978-0-8213-7506-8
ISSN:1726-5878DOI:10.1596/978-0-8213-7505-1

LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationDatahasbeenrequested.

Contents

Foreword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
vii

Acknowledgments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ix

Abbreviations and Acronyms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
xi

Executive Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
xiii

Résumé Analytique. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
xix

Introduction
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
Objectives ofthe Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
Scope and Content. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
Constraints ofthe Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
The Global and Regional Context. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
The Essence ofAdolescence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4

1.Participation in Secondary Education in Sub-Saharan Africa:
The Global Picture
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
EFA and Secondary Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
Definition ofTerms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8
Gender Equity and Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8
Secondary Education in SSA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9
Primary Completion and the Transition to Lower Secondary Education. . . . . . . .
10
Gender Disparity in Secondary Education:A Widening Gap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11

2.Factors Affecting the Participation ofGirls in Secondary Education
. . . . . . . . . .
21
Economic Policies,Growth,and Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
Equity,Financial Measures,and Good Governance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
Making Girls’Schooling Affordable:The Impact ofFees. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
The Bottleneck Effect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
The School Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
Sociocultural Barriers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
Violence against Girls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
The Unreached. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
Summary ofFactors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
iii

iv
Contents

3.Promotion ofFemale Participation in Secondary Education
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
Two Policy Challenges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
State Policy and the Promotion ofFemale Participation in
Secondary Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40

4.Institutions Addressing the Issue ofSecondary Education
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
CAMFED. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
The Role ofCivil Society:The FAWE Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
FAWE Centres ofExcellence:Making the Case for the Holistic Approach. . . . . . . .
50
Challenges ofthe COE Concept. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54

5.Concluding Observations
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
Quality Factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
Importance ofIntersectoral Approaches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
Involvement ofStudents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
Expanding Opportunities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
Taking Best Practices to Scale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59

References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61

L
ISTOF
T
ABLES
1.GER at Junior Secondary School Level in Senegal,2000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
2.Trends in Basic or Proxy Indicators to Measure EFA Goals 4 and 5. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
3.Share ofChildren 15–19 Who Have Completed Primary School,
by Gender (percent). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
4.General Performance in Mathematics in Tanzania,2000. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
5.Subject Enrollment for the Malawi Secondary School Leaving
Examination,by Gender. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
6.Reasons for the Low Participation ofGirls in Science,Maths,and Technological
Subjects in Ghana. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
7.National Open Apprenticeship Scheme,Edo State,Nigeria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
8.Manazini Industrial Training Center Enrollment,1990/91,Swaziland. . . . . . . . . . .
30
9.Final Baccalauréate (Senior High School) Results in TVE in
Burkina Faso (1992). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .