Water, wetlands and forests - A review of Ecological Economic and Policy Linkages
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Water, wetlands and forests - A review of Ecological Economic and Policy Linkages.
Published jointly by the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Secretariat of the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands
Voir
Published jointly by the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Secretariat of the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands
Secretarat f the Cnentn n Blcal Derst
CBD Techncal Seres N. 47
aWter, Wetlands an7 dFrests
A Reew f Eclcal, Ecnc and Plc Lnaes
CBD Techncal Seres N. 47
Waer, Wela a Fre
A Reew f Elal, E a Pl Lae
Published jointly by the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Secretariat of the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands ISBN: 92-9225-186-4
Copyright © 2010, Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. e designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
e views reported in this publication do not necessarily represent those of the Convention on Biological Diversity nor the Secretariat of the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands.
is publication may be reproduced for educational or non-profit purposes without special permission from the copyright holders, provided acknowledgement of the source is made. e Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Secretariat of the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands would appreciate receiving a copy of any publications that use this document as a source.
Ctatn Blumenfeld, S., Lu, C., Christophersen, T. and Coates, D. (2009). Water, Wetlands and Forests . A Review of Ecological, Economic and Policy Linkages . Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity and Secretariat of the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, Montreal and Gland. CBD Technical Series No. 47.
is document has been produced with the financial assistance of the Government of Norway. e views ex-pressed herein do not necessarily reflect the official opinion of the Government of Norway.
For further information, please contact: Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity World Trade Centre 413 St. Jacques Street, Suite 800 Montreal, Quebec, Canada H2Y 1N9 Phone: +1 514 288 2220 Fax: +1 514 288 6588 Email: secretariat@cbd.int Website: www.cbd.int
Secretariat of the Ramsar Convention rue Mauvernay, 28 1196 Gland Switzerland Phone: 41 (0) 22 999 0171 Fax: 41 (0) 22 999 0169 E-mail: ramsar@ramsar.org Website: www.ramsar.org
Edtral assstance : Jacqueline Grekin, Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity Tpesettn : Em Dash Design
Cer phts : Top to bottom: David Coates; Eduardo Augusto Muylaert Antunes–UNEP/Still Pictures, Vlasta Juricek–Flickr.com, Britta Jaschinski–Flickr.com
CoNTENTS
Water, Wetlands and Forests: A Review of Ecological, Economic and Policy Linkages
FoREWoRD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 ExECuTivE SummARy ............................................................................. 6 i. iNTRoDuCTioN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Raising the tides of consciousness around our water resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 ii. ECoLogiCAL LiNkAgES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 e hydrological cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Results of forest and wetland ecosystem interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Human linkages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 iii. ECoNomiC LiNkAgES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Watershed management programmes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Payments for ecological services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 iv. PoLiCy LiNkAgES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Holistic approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 e ecosystem approach (EA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Sustainable forest management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Integrated water resource management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Framing issues within holistic approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Policy overview: Convention on Biological Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Policy overview: Ramsar Convention on Wetlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 e Ramsar Convention on Wetlands and its coverage of forested ecosystem s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Complementarity between the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Ramsar Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Gaps between the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Ramsar Convention . . . . . . . . . . . 36 APPENDix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Summary of key decisions on forest and water management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 CBD decision IV/4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 CBD decision V/6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 CBD decision VI/22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 CBD decision IX/5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 CBD decision IX/19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Ramsar Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Ramsar Wise Use Handbooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Fourth Joint Work Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
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Water, Wetlands and Forests: A Review of Ecological, Economic and Policy Linkages
FoREWoRD e linkages between water, wetlands and forests exemplify the im-portance of managing ecosystems in their entirety to protect their ecological character as well as the freshwater resources and related ecological services that are so vital to human activity on Earth. Inland waters are amongst the most threatened ecosystem types of all, and it is estimated that half of the world’s wetlands have been lost since 1900. Deforestation is also posing a major threat to water catchments and the quantity and quality of available fresh water. With water use growing at more than twice the rate of population growth, it is vital that we properly understand the linkages between water, wetlands and forests, and manage our ecosystems accordingly. is Technical Series publication addresses a request by the Conference of the Parties (decision IX/5 3(e)) to examine linkages between the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. To provide adequate context, this document summarizes information on the crucial linkages between water, wetlands and forests, and how these linkages are recognized and accounted for in terms of ecology, economics and policy. Based on an analysis of complementarities between both Conventions with regard to forests and wetlands, this publication highlights topical synergies that may benefit from increased collaboration. We would like to thank our partners who contributed to the development and review of this publica-tion, including the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Forest Europe, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), UN-Water, and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). We trust that this publication will provide useful information on this topic and encourage further and strengthened cooperation be-tween the multitudes of stakeholders involved in protecting our planet’s freshwater resources and its interdependent ecosystems.
Dr. Ahmed Djoghlaf Executive Secretary Convention on Biological Diversity
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Water, Wetlands and Forests: A Review of Ecological, Economic and Policy Linkages
ExECuTivE SummARy e ecological linkages between water, wetlands and forests represent the intricate interdependence of our ecosystems and our resources. Forests play a pivotal role in the hydrological cycle by affecting rates of transpiration and evaporation, and influencing how water is routed and stored in a watershed. is consequently plays a vital role in the preservation of our wetlands, which act as natural reservoirs and are extremely rich in terms of both biodiversity and the ecological services that they provide, for example, within the realms of agriculture, sanitation, and energy. e importance and scarcity of our freshwater resources cannot be overstated; it is estimated that by 2025, 1.8 billion people will be living in regions with absolute water scarcity and two-thirds of the world’s population could experience water-stress conditions. ere are also crucial economic linkages that need to be understood, such as the water storage function of forests, which can oſten be signifi-cantly higher than the potential timber value of those forests. Watershed management programmes and payment for ecological service mechanisms have been de-signed and implemented to help correct some of the market failures that result in actions that are harm-ful to both the affected ecosystem and economy. From a policy aspect, it is crucial that the linkages be-tween water, wetlands and forests are taken into consideration to adequately protect our water resources and related ecosystems. is holistic approach is highlighted by the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands ’ “wise use” practices, as well as the Convention on Biological Diversity s ecosystem approach.” e joint ’ “ work plan between these two conventions signifies both the congruency of their respective approaches as well as the importance of ensuring that the ecological linkages are not neglected in the policy realm. is document first addresses the issue of freshwater scarcity as an introduction to the importance of forest and wetland linkages. Ecological linkages are then described, with specific note of the hydrologi-cal cycle, the results of forest and water ecosystem interaction and human linkages to both ecosystems. e economic linkages are then described, with particular attention given to watershed management programmes and payments for ecological services. Finally, the policy linkages are explored both in a holistic sense through the ecosystem approach, sustainable forest management and integrated water resource management, but also through a policy overview of the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, along with a brief review of synergies and gaps between the two conventions. ese linkages highlight the importance of utilizing proper scope to ensure full stakeholder involve-ment and cooperation across a multitude of sectors when dealing with our planet’s water resources. is can be facilitated in part by enhanced collaboration between the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands to assist their respective member Parties in implementing management policies in accordance with the ecosystem approach and wise use practices.
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i. iNTRoDuCTioN
Water, Wetlands and Forests: A Review of Ecological, Economic and Policy Linkages
RAising thE tidEs oF consciousnEss ARound ouR WAtER REsouRcEs Water is a simple yet perfect substance that is the cornerstone of life on Earth. Its countless uses al-low for our flourishing biodiversity, while its uniformity connects us with the rest of the living world around us. Water is, in itself, a living process—with its same molecules cycling through their different phases to sustain life on Earth. ese ancient molecules run through our veins today and will continue to sustain us into the future, provided we take the necessary care to maintain this invaluable resource. e importance of water is apparent, but the current state of this resource is something that must be discussed, understood and acted upon to ensure its sustainability. Proper care can ensure its sustain-ability, but continued mismanagement and depletion of our water resources will lead to nothing short of a crisis for life on our planet. While, for many of us, potable water can be obtained at any time of day or night just by turning a faucet, more than one in six people worldwide do not have access to their daily requirement of safe fresh water. It is estimated that by 2025, 1.8 billion people will be living in countries or regions with absolute water scarcity and that two-thirds of the world population could experience water-stress conditions. Water use has been growing at more than twice the rate of population growth, with 70% used for irrigation, 22% for industry, and 8% for domestic use. Despite the crucial importance of this resource, we continue to mistreat this reservoir of life. We dump 2 million tonnes of human waste into watercourses each day, and 70% of industrial waste in developing countries is dumped untreated into waters, polluting the us-able water supply. e importance of water and the current plight of this resource are highlighted in the United Nations’ Millennium Development Goals. One major target is to halve, by 2015, the proportion of the population without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation. Another target aims to achieve a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers by 2020, by focusing on improv-ing sanitation and water facilities. Water is also inextricably linked to the target to halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people who suffer from hunger, since water quality, availability and use are major factors in agriculture and food prices. e target to reduce biodiversity loss also directly incorpo-rates the protection of water resources, both in and of themselves and as part of ecosystems. While the protection of our water resources is highlighted in these targets directly, the importance of fresh water makes its preservation a crucial component of all of the Millennium Development Goals (Figure 1).
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Water, Wetlands and Forests: A Review of Ecological, Economic and Policy Linkages
FiguRE 1: Millennium Development Goals Source: Compiled by authors using original image of the Millennium Development Goals
e increasing awareness of the importance of our freshwater resources has not only pervaded our en-vironmental and public health sectors, it has also reached the business world. “Water Worries” was the theme of a May 2009 Citigroup Global Markets publication. 1 e publication focused on the fact that unsustainable water usage has caused water scarcity to become an economic constraint in major growth markets such as China, India, and Indonesia, as well as commercial centres in Australia and the western United States. It went on to cite the World Economic Forum, which stated: Worsening water security will soon tear into various parts of the global economic system. It will start to emerge as a headline geopolitical issue. (…) We are now on the verge of water bankruptcy. 2 is information, coupled with the fact that a survey of Fortune 1000 companies revealed that 40% said the impact of a water shortage would have “severe” or “catastrophic” impacts on their business, indicates that water is a crucial part of both our economic and environmental systems. 3 It is necessary, however, that we view water not as a mere commodity, but as a vital aspect of our natural ecosystems. It is estimated that half of the world’s wetlands have been lost since 1900, and more than 20% of the world’s 10,000 known freshwater species have become extinct, threatened or endangered. 4
1 Water Worries: Update #2 , Edward M. Kershner and Michael Geraghty, Citigroup Global Markets, 20 May 2009. 2 World Economic Forum. 2009. e Bubble is Close to Bursting: A Forecase of the Main Economic and Geopolitical Water Issues Likely to Arise in the World during the Next Two Decades. Draſt for Discussion at the World Economic Forum Annual Meeting, January 2009, p. 5. 3 Water Worries: Update #2 , Edward M. Kershner and Michael Geraghty, Citigroup Global Markets, 20 May 2009. 4 Fact Sheet on Water and Sanitation, Water for Life. http://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/factsheet.htm l
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Water, Wetlands and Forests: A Review of Ecological, Economic and Policy Linkages
It is therefore crucial to consider the preservation of freshwater resources as an essential component for the preservation of biological diversity, healthy ecosystem function, and biological resources. e Convention on Biological Diversity gives the following definitions for “biological diversity,” “ecosys-tem,” and “biological resources,” respectively: 5
“Biological diversity” means the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia , terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.
“Ecosystem” means a dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit.
“Biological resources” includes genetic resources, organisms or parts thereof, populations, or any other biotic component of ecosystems with actual or potential use or value for humanity.
We now find ourselves at the crossroads of how we have treated our water resources and their capacity to serve us in the future. We cannot continue our unsustainable practices and further strain the dimin-ishing supply of fresh water. We must heed this call and work towards a better understanding of how to manage our water resources to ensure that our ecosystems will continue to provide us with the vital sustenance that water has granted us thus far, and which we will continue to require indefinitely.
5 Article 2. Use of Terms. Convention Text, Convention on Biological Diversity
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Water, Wetlands and Forests: A Review of Ecological, Economic and Policy Linkages
ii. ECoLogiCAL LiNkAgES Water, wetlands and forests are constantly interacting to produce healthy and productive ecosystems. Forests, for example, play a critical role in the well-being and proper function of the hydrological cycle. An examination of the hydrological cycle reveals how forest conservation and management are inti-mately linked to the health of water basins and the quality of water downstream. Forests also regulate soil erosion and pollution, and prevent desertification and salinization. e capacity of forests to help capture and store water helps to mitigate floods in periods of heavy rain and ensures steady water flow during drier seasons. In return, many forests depend on groundwater for survival, and rely on wetlands to support their flora and fauna. Wetlands also play a critical role in maintaining many natural cycles and supporting a wide range of biological diversity.
thE hydRoLogicAL cycLE We cannot act properly to preserve our water resources without first understanding how water circulates throughout the environment. e same water that we depend on today has been circulated throughout its various forms in the hydrological cycle since water first appeared on this planet. e hydrological cycle describes the movement of water on, above, and below the surface of the Earth as ice, liquid water, and water vapour (Figure 2). is cycle is further influenced by natural processes, such as transpiration from plants and human activities. e hydrological cycle is the fundamental building block of freshwater resources, which comprise only 2.5% of the total water on Earth. Of these freshwater resources, about 70% is in the form of ice and permanent snow cover, 30% is stored underground, and 0.3% comprises the world’s freshwater lakes and rivers. Consequently, the total freshwater supply for use by humans and ecosystems is less than 1% of all freshwater resources and less than 0.015% of all water on the planet. 6 It is this small portion of the Earth’s water that we rely on so heavily for food production, industry, drinking water, and the main-tenance of healthy ecosystems. rough the hydrological cycle, water is transferred between surface, subsurface and atmospheric regions through the multitude of processes shown in figures 2 and 3. In brief, water travels from the Earth’s surface to the atmosphere as water vapour through evaporation (the process of turning water from a liquid to a gas) from surface water and runoff, or transpiration through plants. Transpiration describes the movement of water through soil and vegetation, and ac-counts for 62% of annual globally renewable fresh water (Figure 2). In the hydrological cycle, the results of transpiration are known as “green water,” whereas the liquid water moving above and below the ground is known as “blue water.” (Figure 3). e vapour accumulated through these processes, together referred to as evapotranspiration , represents 10% of the world’s fresh water and cycles in the atmosphere in a “global dynamic envelope.” 7 is vapour then condenses to form clouds, where it later returns to the Earth’s surface through precipitation. Precipitation is the main source of fresh water, aſter which the water either returns to the atmosphere through evaporation or transpiration, recharges groundwater, or provides surface and subsurface runoff, which ultimately flows into larger bodies of water. 8
6 UN Water Statistics, ttp://www.unwater.org/st _ h atistics res.htm l 7 UNESCO Water Portal bi-monthly newsletter No. 213 8 World Water Assessment Programme. 2009. e United Nations World Water Development Report 3: Water in a Changing World . Paris: UNESCO, and London: Earthscan, pp. 166-7. http://www.unesco.org/water/wwap/wwdr/wwdr3/.
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Water, Wetlands and Forests: A Review of Ecological, Economic and Policy Linkages
FiguRE 2: The hydrological cycle Source: L. S. Hamilton 2008. Forests and Water. FAO Forestry Paper 155, Rome: FAO, 3.
FiguRE 3: Interrelations among environmental components of the global water cycle Source: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Wetlands and Water Synthesis. World Resources Institute, Washington, D.C.
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